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Mediums, Skeptics, and William Crookes …. Oh My

William Crookes (1832-1919) was a physicist, chemist and member of the Royal Society (which is the oldest national science institution in the world) who contributed a great deal to science. Crookes is credited with the discovery of Thallium, being the first to identify helium, inventing sunglasses as well as other contributions to chemistry and physics such as vacuum tubes and the Spinthariscope (i.e. device used to study nuclear radioactivity) (Gay, 1996). Crookes was also the individual who first coined the term ‘psychic force’ and carried out experiments in the controversial area of spiritualism.


While Crookes maintained his distance from the spiritualist views he did come to conclusions that went against the prevailing psychological and naturalistic views of the time. Crookes’ journey into the investigation of spiritual phenomena began when he announced his intention to investigate spiritualistic phenomena, which was followed by his first experiments with D.D. Home (medium). These experiments were designed to test two types of phenomena, which included Home’s ability to play musical instruments without human interaction and Home’s ability to affect the weight of physical objects. In the first experiment Mr. Home held an accordion inside a cage that was underneath a table with one hand at the opposite end of the keys.

According to the witnesses present, which included three observers including Dr. Huggins, Sgt Cox, and Crookes’s assistant the accordion began to play music and at one point Home removed his hand altogether and the accordion still expanded and contracted while playing music (Crookes, 1874). In the second experiment Home placed his fingertips at the extreme end of a wooden board and was able to exert downward pressure on the opposite end of the board moving the self-registered weight index (Crookes, 1874).

Following these experiments Crookes conducted further experiments regarding psychic force with different and more objective measurements and apparatus all of which gave further proof to Crookes’s psychic force.

These experiments were conducted during the Victorian period, which has been called the age of science due to the increasing beliefs in naturalistic laws rather than supernatural agencies or superstitions (Noakes, 2004). Scientific practitioners and investigators of Spiritualism believed that the phenomena of the séance could be reduced to natural laws; however Spiritualism became so popular it was represented as beyond natural laws and science (Noakes, 2004). According to Noakes (2004) the belief that Spiritualism was beyond the reach and explanation of science posed a threat to Victorian scientists because if these phenomena were real they called into question orthodox science’s credibility, claims, and expertise. Orthodox science was forced into the business of debunking spiritualistic phenomena in an effort to uphold their natural laws and since Crookes’s new psychic force lay outside these natural laws his research was severely criticized. The first part of this article will discuss how Crookes presented his experiments into a psychic force as scientific and objective as a way to display his results as being in accordance with orthodox science. The second part of the article will focus in on how Crookes’ experiments were received by orthodox science. The third part of the article will illustrate how similar patterns of presentation and reception of unorthodox claims still exist in modern science using the example of parapsychology.

Presentation of Crookes’ Experiments

The presentation of experiments including measurements, methods, and conclusions is important in regards to how the experiment is received and viewed. In the next section we will look at how Crookes presented his experiments which follow the pattern of describing his version of proper science and scientific methods, justifying his investigations into the phenomena, and finally application of his version of science and the scientific method. It should be noted that an agreed upon scientific method had not been established during the Victorian period (Noakes, 2004), therefore Crookes presented what he believed was the most scientific approach to test the phenomena and his expertise in this approach.

Crookes (1874) begins by announcing his intention to investigate spiritualistic phenomena and clarifying “what experimental proof would be needed before admitting a new department of knowledge” to science. (p.4) Crookes also emphasizes that his version of science will be congruent with the “modes of thought current amongst those who investigate science” (p.4) In other words Crookes was stating that before he began his investigation into the phenomena he wanted to make clear what would suffice as good enough scientific evidence to warrant further investigation. The phenomena would have to pass Crookes’s version of science to be deemed worthy. Lamont (2007) points out that Crookes’s version or mode of science was based on two central themes, which included accurate observation and lack of preconceptions about what is possible. In an attempt establish his expertise and experience in accurate observation Crookes (1874) states that “his whole scientific education has been one long lesson in exactness of observation.”(p.4) Crookes further points out the importance of accurate observation in the following examples; “the supremacy of accuracy must be absolute” (p.4), “imperfect observation may cause infinite trouble to thousands” (p.5), “accuracy and knowledge stand foremost among (…) scientific men.”(pp.4-5) Crookes (1874) then stresses that accurate observation can only be found when human senses are not the primary mode of conclusion. In discussing the imperfection of relying only on human senses Crookes states “We ask for instrumental means to increase their [human senses] sharpness (…) when [they] are liable to be off balance.”(p.5) Crookes presented his version of science to include accurate observation which includes objective measures and strict testing conditions. He believed that any force that could “toss a heavy body up to the ceiling” could surely “cause a delicately-poised balance to move under test conditions.”(Crookes, 1874, p.6) At this point Crookes has established himself as a scientific man with experience and expertise in observation, who is capable of utilizing objective measurements. Crookes then points out the contrast between his version of science and the “pseudo-scientific spiritualists” version of science. Crookes points to the pseudo-scientific spiritualist’s lack of “calculations”, “hard experiments”, and “laborious readings” (p.5) as leading to unscientific conclusions. By Crookes emphasizing science as opposite of the techniques of pseudo-scientific spiritualists he further implies that his version of science is an abundance of calculations, hard experiments, and labours readings. At this point Crookes has stressed that in order for science to accept any knowledge it first must be investigated with accurate and objective measurements, under strict test conditions by those with scientific knowledge and reasoning. According to Lamont (2007) by presenting science as based on accurate observation Crookes is able to build up the authority of scientists over spiritualists and establish himself as being qualified to carry out investigation of the phenomena.

Along with accurate observation Crookes’s version of science was presented as including no bias or preconceptions (Lamont, 2007). Crookes (1874) attempted to present his experiments making clear the fact that he did not currently “adopt any explanation which has been suggested” regarding the causes on the phenomena. (p.3) He believed the natural explanations were “easy, but miserably insufficient” and that the spiritual hypotheses were “sufficient, but ponderously difficult.”(Crookes, 1874, p.3) Crookes (1874) states “In the present case I prefer to enter into inquiry with no preconceived notions.”(p.4) Crookes emphasized that his purpose was to “bring light in any direction” and further emphasized his lack of preconceptions stating “I care not in what direction.”(p.4)

Crookes also presented in his writings justification for investigating spiritualistic phenomena. While Crookes was clear in that he was not bias he also had to prove why investigating these phenomena is important to science, rather than a waste of time. Crookes’s (1874) first view regarding justification was the belief that it was the scientific man’s duty “to investigate the phenomena, which attract the attention of the public.” (p.3) Crookes’ second justification was that the current research on spiritualistic phenomena is inadequate. According to Crookes (1874) “scientific reasoning is misunderstood by spiritualists” and “truly worthy scientific minds are reluctant to investigate.” (p.3). Crookes (1874) further warrants his investigation by inferring that he is not the only scientist with this opinion stating “I began an inquiry suggested to me by eminent men exercising great influence on the thought on the country.” (p.7)

So far Crookes has provided a description of his view of science which is based upon accurate observation and lack of preconceptions (Lamont, 2007) as well as justified his investigation into the phenomena. The next step is the development and application of his version of science to his experiments (Lamont, 2007).

In Crookes’s (1874) first experiments he presents his first task as identifying and testing phenomena which he believes could be “tested with scientific accuracy.” (p.10) Crookes (1874) then describes the two phenomena he will investigate which include the alteration in weights of bodies and the playing of musical instruments without human interaction. Once it is clear what phenomena he is studying he develops two different apparatus and experimental procedures for objective measurement of the phenomena (for a more detailed description of apparatus and procedure, see Crookes, 1871). Mr. Home was able to demonstrate his abilities under controlled test conditions; therefore, Crookes presented his results stressing his accurate and objective observations. Detailed illustrations, witnesses (Dr. Huggins & Sgt Cox), “carefully arranged apparatus” and “copious notes written at the t